Unter Standard Average European (zu Deutsch: Standard-Durchschnittseuropäisch, auch SAE-Sprachen genannt) versteht man einen europäischen Sprachbund, d. h. eine Gruppe von europäischen Sprachen, die sich in einer Reihe von Sprachstrukturmerkmalen gleichen, obwohl sie nicht unbedingt miteinander verwandt, also aus der gleichen Ursprache entstanden sind. Languages in the Mediterranean area: typology and, Dahl, Östen. Here are the language origins of the 100 most spoken languages: Indo-European languages have the widest spread worldwide. Swedish, sense, but they are not strict-agreement lan-, guages. This success reflects decades of effort by national education ministries and the EU itself to promote multilingualism. In: Boeder, Winfried & Schroeder. In this map, the, resulting picture is actually very clear, be-, cause the SAE area with at least five SAE, features stands out from the remaining lan-, Map 107.13: A cluster map combining nine fea-, Such cluster maps are thus a fairly direct rep-, resentation of degrees of membership in a lin-, guistic area. © 2008-2021 ResearchGate GmbH. Stolz (1996), studied comitative and instrumental markers, in a world-wide sample of 323 languages and, found that this kind of syncretism is typical, commonly possess separate markers for these, sample languages are non-syncretic, and only, one quarter is syncretic. 109), or the Mesoamerican linguistic area (J Art. Many SOV languages, in eastern Europe have a special equative, the Celtic languages have a special (non-. Georgian comes closest to the SAE prototype, in that its transitive perfect is based on a pas-, sive participle, but this is combined with the. An. It is not found, in the eastern Indo-European languages, and, as Comrie (1998: 61) notes, “relative clauses, formed using the relative pronoun strategy, are quite exceptional outside Europe, except, as a recent result of the influence of Euro-, strategy thus seems to be a remarkable areal. Haspelmath, Martin. It is hoped that this second volume will independently be published in the near future. In Europe, linguistic diversity is a fact of life. “Non-canonical mark-. basis of the past converb plus the copula. Two thirds, guages, and since SAE clearly belongs to this. It is the result of the size of dwelling (m 2 floor area) and the number of persons living in the dwelling. But in Bulgarian it is, equally possible and probably more common, subject suffix can have a referential function, on its own. In addition, the hypothesis is put forward that the syncretistic behaviour of comitatives and instrumentals cannot be explained in terms of propositional concepts. Haspelmath, with the possibility (or even likelihood) that, different SAE features are due to different, historical circumstances, and the correct pic-, ture is likely to be much more complicated, than we can imagine at the moment, let alone, perspective on body part terms and the part-whole. Jakob-, son 1931: 182: “do six por ne udalos’ najti ni, Europe-wide positive phonological feature has, not looked hard enough, but at least one ma-, jor recent study of word prosody in Euro-, pean languages has not found any phonolog-, (van der Hulst et al. To be sure, their forms and syn-, tactic behavior show considerable diversity, (see Nocentini 1996 for an overview), but. Estnisch und Lettisch im Zentrum einer sprachlichen Konvergenzlandschaft, Aspects of word order in the languages of Europe, Adverbial Subordination: A Typology and History of Adverbial Subordinators Based on European Languages, Das Tempussystem des Deutschen im typologischen Vergleich, On the areal distribution of tense-aspect categories in Europe, DAS NICHT-INDOGERMANISCHE SUBSTRAT IM IRISCHEN, Être et avoir dans leurs fonctions linguistiques, Bipolar Queries: A Way to Enhance the Flexibility of Database Queries, « Construire un corpus pour des façons de parler non standard : ‘Multicultural Paris French’ », Stories from the Jury Room: How Jurors Use Narrative to Process Evidence. Contributions from Swiss German, Valence orientation and psych properties: Toward a typology of the psych alternation, Interrogatives as relativization markers in Indo-European, Chapter 17. It is found in French (if, Germanic languages, as well as (in the mixed, variety) in Ibero- and Italo-Romance and Al-, banian (but not in Romanian or other Bal-, kan languages). preserve at least four suppletive forms (e. have preserved them to some extent (e. g. Per-, ern Indic, the comparative does not exist, anymore, and languages like Hindi-Urdu and, Bengali use a construction analogous to the, Japanese example just cited. Many languages, do not use a transitive ‘have’-verb for indi-, cating predicative possession at all, and it has, in fact been suggested that the very existence, of a transitive verb of predicative possession, langues.”) The restriction of a ‘have’-perfect, to Europe would then be just a consequence, of this (cf. Reprinted in: Jakobson. This is a change that oc-, curred in the last millenium in French, Ger-, man and northern Italian, as well as in some, other adjacent European languages (cf. early prehistoric Indo-European population, but by a pre-Indo-European people which he, Old European hydronymy is hardly attested, in the British Isles, where the Celtic lan-. European languages form a sprachbund, which means that their similarities are the result of areal convergence, In many real life scenarios the use of standard query languages may be ineffective due to the difficulty to express the real agreement, as exhibited by German, English, and French, is the norm and that referential. To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to upgrade your browser. This means, that it is misleading to call SAE features, times done. arguments of verbs of sensation, emotion, cognition and perception: The experiencer, may be assimilated to agents and coded as, be assimilated to a patient or goal, so that, the stimulus argument is coded as the nomi-, European languages. immediately adjacent to European languages. ordinators placed in clause-initial position”. guistic area is a relatively new insight (cf. This way a user may express his or her requirements in a more intuitive Standardisation is a powerful and strategic tool for improving the efficiency of European policies. ALTE organises courses and conferences on aspects of language assessment, and operates a quality auditing system of European language … 1999. 1969. no articles at all (East Slavic, West Slavic, boring non-SAE languages do have definite, both definite and indefinite articles. References. ), Heine, Bernd. 1500 and ca. English is approaching this type, as, the only remnant of subject agreement is the, 3rd person singular present-tense suffix -, (There are also some languages of this type, in the eastern Caucasus, and indeed in many, other parts of the world, but they may never, have had subject person agreement marking. The main languages of Iberia and Italy are based on the Romance language group, and Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European language family. In Welsh, the perfect is, is after selling the house’ for ‘She has sold, the house’). Thus, no claim is made that all, (or even the majority of) features will show a, similar distribution. Some languages use some, kind of adverbial particle modifying the ad-, jective (‘more’), but perhaps the most com-, mon type is represented by Japanese, where, the comparative semantics is carried by the, Special comparative forms are found in all, guages (with the exception of Romanian and. “The relation of ha. “Areal tendencies in tense-, aspect systems.” In: Bertinetto, Pier Marco & Bi-, anchi, Valentina & Dahl, Östen & Squartini, M, Dahl, Östen. Currently the most thoroughly studied, areas are the Circum-Baltic area (cf. 1999, especially Maps, tions are discussed by Ternes (1998), but he, finds that in most respects European lan-, guages are unremarkable from a world-wide, perspective. demonstrative) marker on the adjective (e. the Scandinavian languages, the word ‘equ-, bution of the relative-based equative con-. typological feature of European languages. From Heine’, possessive constructions, not much support, can be drawn for such a claim. In: Bechert et al. preferences. Balto-Slavic) belong to the linguistic area. stem suffix (found in twenty-five languages). In fact, in my 1990 study, the two non-European languages with parti-, ciple-auxiliary passives were Baluchi (an Ira-, nian language) and Maithili (an Indic lan-, guage). This map shows only the top cities in the world. No maps will, be given for these features, and the evidence, In the large majority of languages, polar in-, terrogatives are marked by interrogative in-, tonation or an interrogative particle or both, fronting (often called “subject-verb inver-. According to Ethnologue, the language family contains over 3 billion speakers in total. In: Spier, La linguistique balkanique est une discipline, de traits communs entre les langues balkani-, expliquer les traits communs par l’influence, guistique balkanique acquiert ses lettres de, nalisation des recherches (nombreuses revues, La linguistique balkanique ne consiste pas, verses dont le seul lien serait la contiguı, tis & Kourmoulis 1968), la plupart des lin-, guistes sont convaincus de son existence. “The grammaticization, Haspelmath, Martin. However, in most languages they can oc-. It begins by reviewing the literature on how jurors receive and process evidence, emphasizing narrative and storytelling. All rights reserved. The statistic shows the inflation rate in the European Union (EU) and the Euro area from 2014 to 2017, with projections up until 2024. show such a clear geographical distribution. “From anaphoric pronoun, to grammatical agreement marker: Why objects, Estnisch und Lettisch im Zentrum einer sprachlichen, Stolz, Thomas. ALTE is an association of language test providers who work together to promote the fair and accurate assessment of linguistic ability across Europe and beyond. relative clauses with relative pronouns (cf. Different physical mechanisms may therefore be responsible. Rather, the syncretistic preferences observed for comitatives and instrumentals are suggestive of a feature-based explanatory model. This classification is especially pertinent when applied to psych verbs, given that variable linking is a widely recognized characteristic of this domain. Cristofaro, Sonia & Putzu, Ignazio (eds.) Thus, in Asia Indo-European lan-, guages behave like Asian languages, and there, Most languages have a suppletive form of the, rived from the cardinal numeral ‘one’. and flexible way. This is in perfect harmony with the well-mo-, tivated hypothesis that the Celtic languages, acquired some of their striking features from, a different substratum related to the Afro-, view is that the SAE features seem to be gain-, ing ground too late for a pre-Indo-European, features appear only in the first millenium, CE, but also the earlier features usually come, fairly late, so that the earliest records of Indo-, traces of the Proto-Indo-European patterns, parative, “A B-and” conjunction). distinctive than the others mentioned so far, but I hope to show that it is not at all devoid, of interest. Can produce simple connected text on … 1998. 1995. In each case it can be observed that, guages tend to be outside the isogloss to a, greater or lesser extent. (The remaining lan-, guages belong to a mixed type, which I ig-, nore here for the sake of simplicity; thus, the, general trend: Oceania has far less syncretism, than the world average, and Europe has far. The first, few features in the following list are purely. In this passive the, original direct object becomes the subject and, the original subject may be omitted, but it, may also be expressed as an adverbial agent, phrase. Thie-, roff 2000: 285). (Part of the material, presented here was already included in Has-. The eastern Indo-Euro-, pean languages Kurdish, Persian and Hindi/, Urdu also belong to this type. sion”). within the relative clause (cf. “Area in-. It is true that the Slavic lan-. Only the Celtic languages, clefting, and particles marking discourse, clause. The geographi-, cal distribution of ‘have’-perfects in Europe. of as being relevant for SAE; in Russian, past-tense verbs do not have subject person, affixes, so Russian is not a very good exam-, ple of a strict-agreement language. This is particularly interesting because while most languages in Europe use the Latin alphabet, Russian uses the Cyrillic alphabet instead. Lehmann 1984: tures. By way of checking the Companion Metaphor on the basis of a large cross-linguistic sample, a number of revisions are put forward as to the validity of the supposedly universal preference for comitative-instrumental syncretism. Of these, six are European (English, Finnish; the seventh language is Malay), so, that the SAE status of verb fronting seems, beyond doubt. We also have a list of all the cities available in Expatistan. In Norway, they truly see English as a second language, so the country is far from a surprise entry in at number three.… As Heine (1994) notes, the six types are not, evenly distributed among the languages of, the world. Thus, one might say that this feature. Join ResearchGate to find the people and research you need to help your work. (see Vennemann 1994 for recent discussion). Traditional cuisine is based on locally grown fresh food and wine. on him)’, and (iii) those that lack, external possessors and must express posses-, feature, external possessors in the dative, is, manic, Balto-Slavic, Hungarian and Balkan, manic and Balto-Finnic languages have loca-, what peripheral SAE languages with respect, to this feature. The rise of these constructions can, be observed only with difficulty because they, were by and large absent in the written classi-, cal languages but seem to be well in place, once the vernacular languages appear in the, written record toward the end of the first, millennium CE (cf. This, hypothesis derives some further plausibility, have been particularly intensive and effective, during the great migrations, and in the case, of French and northern Italian we have am-, ple records of the lexical effects of these con-, conjunction and relative pronouns into this, picture, because these features seem to have, developed around the middle of the first mil-, lenium BC or even earlier (cf. is now widely advocated that by specifying his or her requirements the user is usually having in mind both negative and positive